02 - PLANNING, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION
Golf Course Development
Environmental, economic, and site suitability factors must be carefully considered in the development or renovation of a golf course. There are opportunities to maximize sustainability and energy efficiencies through proper design, planning, and building. Care should be taken to preserve and protect the natural environment, including natural resources, native plants, and wildlife.
Each project is different, this document is not intended to create a blanket standardization of golf course development. BMP guidelines provide a framework for strong, well informed decision-making. The needs and vision for every course location and site will be different; this document provides general guidance; all parts may not be applicable to all situations.
TCEQ Flow Chart
Flow Chart to Determine TCEQ Permit Requirements, Based on Disturbed Acreage
The TCEQ has developed a flow chart to determine what permits are required for construction activities related to the Texas Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (TPDES) and discharges of stormwater runoff.
Additional information:
https://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/permitting/stormwater/txr150000-cgp.pdf
Regulatory Considerations
Before initiating any construction, it is important to seek expert advice to understand permitting and regulatory requirements at the federal, state, and local levels. The scope or limits of the project can be adjusted in order to reduce the permitting process, as these will vary depending on both scope and location.
The first consideration in developing a new golf course should be whether or not the property is zoned for a golf course development, as the lack of appropriate zoning can significantly stretch the permitting timeline or even block the project altogether. A new course project must comply with all environmental regulation permits for the locality, such as a general environmental review, water withdrawal, and wetland impacts. For renovation projects, meeting with an environmental consultant can help identify permitting requirements early on in the project.
Permits from local, state, and federal agencies typically include general and project-specific conditions that must be followed. Approved permit plans and conditions should be provided to all contractors prior to bidding. Compliance throughout the project is generally monitored by the golf course superintendent or permitting consultants.
General Construction and Stormwater Permits
Stormwater management planning is necessary to ensure sediment controls are in place during construction and ensure that runoff from the course doesn’t impact adjacent properties and waters.
Any discharge of stormwater associated with construction must be permitted unless in a waivered context. Determination of permit requirements, applications, and requests for further information on the Stormwater General Permit for Construction Activities should be directed to Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ).
https://www.tceq.texas.gov/agency/water_main.html
Floodplains
Most man-made changes to land in the floodplain require a permit, including but not limited to development of buildings or other structures, mining, dredging, filling, grading, paving, excavation or drilling operations or storage of equipment or materials. Regulators will seek to insure there is no net loss in floodplain area on the site. Be sure to check with local municipalities for permitting requirements.
https://www.tsswcb.texas.gov/programs/flood-control-program
Wetlands
It is illegal to drain or fill any Texas wetland without a permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which is reviewed and administered by the TCEQ; the Texas coast is under the jurisdiction of the Corps’ Galveston District Office. At the federal level, wetlands are protected under the Clean Water Act (CWA) and activities are overseen by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACOE), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in addition to potential involvement from the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and maritime agencies. Wetlands may also be protected by local regulations or ordinances. It is critical to identify any wetlands, vernal pools, coastal zones, water bodies, intermittent streams and rivers prior to commencing planning for a new site or site extension.
https://www.tceq.texas.gov/permitting/401certification
Surface Waters
Surface water in Texas is owned by the state and held in trust for the citizens of the state. The right to the use of state water may be acquired by appropriation. The Water Rights Permitting Application must be submitted through the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ). Before diverting Texas state water, a declaration of intent must be made and approved by the watermaster of the designated Water Division.
https://www.tceq.texas.gov/permitting/water_rights/wr-permitting/wr_applications.html#process
https://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/permitting/forms/10214a.pdf
https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/WA/htm/WA.11.htm#11.325
Watershed Protection Plans
The TCEQ assesses Texas waters and prepares a water quality report including identification of impaired waters via the Texas Integrated Report for Clean Water Act 305(b) and 303(d). The Texas Soil & Water Conservation Board (TSSWCB) initiates implementation of associated Watershed Protection Plans (WPPs) to address water quality protection of Texas waterbodies and to restore impaired waters. There are 216 local Soil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCDs) which work with local stakeholders to promote stewardship and conservation efforts in support of WPPs. These plans and implementation efforts are aligned to EPA Guidelines in support of the CWA.
https://www.tceq.texas.gov/waterquality/assessment
Coastal Permits
Any construction or renovation work within coastal, tidal, or navigable waters must consider issues of coastal resilience. In Texas coastal management is the responsibility of the Texas General Land Office (GLO). Works which are likely to impact any of the following coastal areas must be conducted in line with the Coastal Management Plan and will be subject to permitting.
Coastal Barriers
Coastal Historic Areas
Critical Erosion Areas
Gulf Beaches
Submerged Lands
Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Coastal Preserves
Coastal Shore Areas
Hard Substrate Reefs
Oyster Reefs
Tidal Sand or Mud Flats
Waters of Gulf of Mexico
Coastal Wetlands
Critical Dune Areas
Special Hazard Areas Waters Under Tidal Influence
https://www.glo.texas.gov/coast/coastal-management/permitting/index.html
Rare and Endangered Species
Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) regulates the taking, possession, transportation, or sale of any of the animal species designated by state law as endangered or threatened without the issuance of a permit. State laws and regulations prohibit commerce in threatened and endangered plants and the collection of listed plant species from public land without a permit issued by TPWD. Some species listed as threatened or endangered under state law are also listed under federal regulations.
Planning, Design & Construction:
• Internal and External Stakeholders
• Owners and/or Capital Manager
• Golf course architect
• Golf course superintendent
• Agronomist
• Civil engineer
• Irrigation designer & engineer
• Landscape architect
• Clubhouse architect
• Ecologist
• Entomologist
• Biologist
• Geologist
• Soil scientist
• Environmental engineer
• Archaeologist
• Cultural advisory team
• Land planner
• Golf course builder
• Energy analyst
• Resource management team
• Turfgrass consultant
• Economic advisor
• SWCD representative
• Water management expert
• Legal team
Planning
Proper planning provides the opportunity to integrate environmental and aesthetic characteristics of a property and minimize costs from unforeseen construction requirements. As a first step, define SMART (specific-measurable-attainable-relevant-timebound) objectives before starting any planning process. A feasibility study should be completed to identify:
Site needs, resources, obstacles, strengths, weaknesses
Potential ecological and cultural impacts
Any possible resistance to development
Timeframes
Forecast costs
Accessibility to resources and water sources
Energy demands and availability
Local, state, and national regulations or restrictions
Expected return on investment
Labor requirements
Once all feasibility study data has been collected, assess whether needs are feasible given existing resources and select a site that can achieve the needs and objectives of stakeholders.
Professional, experienced judgement is crucial when applying BMPs in the planning, design, and construction phases of the project. The implementation of a golf course project will typically benefit from the use of professional consultants familiar with similar requirements. A strong project team should be assembled with qualified internal and external stakeholders. Most projects commence with engaging a qualified golf course architect, a civil engineer, an environmental consultant, other consultants, and owner’s representatives. The golf course architect and civil engineer may be helpful in assembling the permitting team. An experienced golf course superintendent is also integral to the planning process for any golf project.
Golf course superintendents should be engaged in all phases. For renovation projects superintendents bring extensive knowledge of the site which is critical to determining the most appropriate design and informing the design team of issues that may impact maintenance of the course or player enjoyment of the facility. The superintendent’s knowledge of the BMPs and direct participation in planning and construction greatly affect the success of the project.
Archeological and Native American Land Rights
It is essential to consider any archeological or Native American land access or use restrictions before, during, and after construction and renovation projects. It is important to understand and respect cultures and traditions, including preservation of existing archeological finds, historic sites, and areas of cultural significance.
Texas is home to three federally recognized American Indian tribes:
• Alabama-Coushatta Tribe (Livingston, TX)
• Kickapoo Traditional Tribe (Eagle Pass, TX)
• Ysleta del Sur Pueblo (El Paso, TX)
Additional information:
http://www.native-languages.org/texas.htm
Contractor references for cultural resource investigations:
Best Management Practices
Comply with Federal, Texas, and municipal laws and regulations.
Assemble a qualified team with expertise in golf course development and environmental permitting. Include qualified internal and external stakeholders, the golf course superintendent, and an experienced project manager.
Involve a qualified golf course superintendent/project manager at the beginning of the process to integrate sustainable maintenance practices in the development, maintenance, and operation of the course.
Determine SMART objectives and complete a feasibility study of the project to evaluate whether existing resources are sufficient for identified needs.
Before any planning starts, identify wetland boundaries, vernal pools, coastal zones, waterbodies, intermittent streams and rivers. These should be flagged and mapped in accordance with local, Texas, and federal regulations due to potential permit requirements.
Consider available water for irrigation; power supply access and energy demands; cost and availability of materials (such as root zone mix or bunker sand); maintenance needs; regulatory requirements and restrictions.
Contact the water supplier seeking suggestions to comply with water quality standards and BMPs so watersheds and/or aquifers are protected.
Consult with TCEQ on Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan
Identify rare, protected, endangered, or threatened plant or animal species on the site. For a Texas-specific species list by county, reference: https://tpwd.texas.gov/gis/rtest/
Archaeological awareness of the site and surrounding area should be considered.
All golf-courses, new or existing, should have a Master Plan, focused on the long term, which ties together phased projects over time with a single vision in mind.
Urban Greenspace
Greenspace provided by golf courses helps reduce the urban heat island effect, supports ecosystem function, and provides wildlife habitats.
Access to Resources
After defining project objectives, it is important to prepare an existing conditions plan, identifying property boundaries, topography, vegetation limits, roads, wetlands, and other jurisdictional areas. This plan is a critical tool in preparing a project to avoid environmental harm and to determine the feasibility of achieving project goals. The development of a constraints plan, along with identification of a suitable water source (for new courses) may determine that a site is unsuitable for the intended golf course project before expensive planning and permitting has begun.
Sensitivity to Plant and Animal Species
It is essential that protected, endangered, or threatened plant or animal species are identified on the site. The US Fish and Wildlife Service can be consulted to identify species federally protected under the Endangered Species Act, together with rare and endangered species identified per Texas statute. A long-term protection plan should be developed which preserves, promotes, or expands critical habitat.
Wildlife habitat requirements (food, water, cover, space) should be identified and assessed with operations implemented to preserve wildlife habitat and migration corridors. Cart paths and crossings should be located to minimize environmental impact and accommodate wildlife movement.
Birdhouses, bat houses, nesting sites, and beehives should be constructed in out-of-play areas together with butterfly gardens which can also be established around the clubhouse. Riparian buffers along waterways should be retained to protect water quality and provide food, nesting sites, and cover for wildlife. Nuisance and exotic/invasive plants which are identified as pests should be removed and replaced with native species adapted to the site, based on site needs and preference. Minimize stream or river crossings to protect water quality and preserve stream banks.
Reference Pollinator Protection and Wildlife Habitat, Landscape, and Surface Water Management sections for additional BMPs.
Texas Rare and Endangered Species
Threatened
Horned Lizard
Bald Eagle
Texas Tortoise
Louisiana Pine Snake
Texas Kangaroo Rat
Alligator Snapping Turtle
Black Bear
Indigo Snake
Endangered
Golden Cheeked Warbler
Kemps Ridley Sea Turtle
Aplomado Falcon
Ocelot
Red Wolf
Houston Toad
Black Capped Vireo
Grey Wolf
Jaguarundi
Protected Birds
Red-tailed Hawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
Turkey Vulture
Grey Horned Owl
Scissor-Tailed Flycatcher
Cardinal
Indigo Bunting
Black-Necked Stilt
Blue Jay
House Finch
Tufted Titmouse
Painted Bunting
Green Jay
Whooping Crane
Roadrunner
American Kestrel
Tri-coloured Heron
Brown Pelican
Roseate Spoonbill
Black Skimmer
Great Blue Heron
For fish, reference: https://tpwd.texas.gov/huntwild/wild/wildlife_diversity/nongame/listed-species/fish.phtml
For additional information, reference:
Design
Golf course design should minimize impacts to sensitive environmental issues that have been identified during the site review and initial planning. Proper design will meet the needs of stakeholders, protect the location’s environmental resources, and be economically sustainable. If impacts are unavoidable, the design should identify the level of impact and address how future golf course use and maintenance will be managed to reduce adverse effects. For example, relocation of trees and/or planting of native plants.
Existing foliage should be enhanced wherever possible through supplemental planting of native materials and vegetation along fairways, out-of-play areas, and water sources supporting fish and other water-dependent species. Exotic plants, together with invasive or nuisance species should be replaced with native species which are adapted to the site.
Best management practices
Design to minimize or eliminate alteration of existing native landscapes and retain natural site characteristics. The plans should review different design options and select the plan that best meets the objectives with the least disturbance.
Plant only certified turfgrass; select a species that meets needs of stakeholders and the site.
Design out-of-play areas to retain or restore existing native vegetation where possible.
Invasive plants should be removed and replaced with native species adapted to the site.
Consider implementing increased plant diversity into the site to improve habitats.
When planning golf cart paths or other areas with potentially high vehicle traffic, try to predict the effect the trail’s layout could have on vegetation (e.g., running over vegetation due to sharp turns) or the layout of the irrigation system.
Ensure that proper permitting has been obtained before disturbing any tidal or non-tidal wetland or the regulated buffer zone.
For any type of work that would involve wetlands, reference state and municipal information.
Before commencing any work in or around wetlands make sure these have been properly delineated by a professional consultant and approved by the regulatory agency.
Water conservation and quality should be an integral part of the design goals, incorporating low maintenance areas and native or drought tolerant vegetation and managing stormwater flows.
Have engineering, architect, construction team and golf course superintendent focus a significant amount of time on properly sizing drainage on and around the golf course property.
Design to maximize play and minimize negative environmental impact.
Design irrigation systems to minimize water use, drift, or overspray.
Understand the latest irrigation technology available to use and water most efficiently.
Consider potential wear patterns in turfgrass areas and create adequate space for ingress/egress at greens, tees, fairways, and bunkers.
Conduct a shade study on all green complex areas as well as tees, plan accordingly so highly maintained turfgrass areas get adequate sunlight.
Selecting Turfgrass
The principle of “right plant, right place” should be adhered to when selecting a turfgrass species that meets stakeholder needs. A research green or turfgrass research plots can be used to trial desired species and cultivars for density, color, and tolerances. The decision to use one cultivar or multiple versions should consider whether the maintenance team will be able to keep the greens pure and uncontaminated for the long-term. Usually, single species selection is more cost-effective. The approach surrounds, tees, fairway, and rough height-of-cut are usually determining factors. It is important to keep up to date with turfgrass propagation and cultivation restrictions and ensure only certified species are planted.
It is a good idea to seek advice from a USGA agronomist or a turfgrass consultant when deciding which varieties of grass to use. This decision should be based on an evaluation of soil conditions, watering capabilities and the expected level of maintenance. USGA research can aid with selecting drought and disease resistant cultivars. Another reference includes the National Turfgrass Evaluation Program for help with cultivar selection: http://www.ntep.org/
Common Texas Turfgrass Species
Determining Factors in Selecting Best Turfgrass Species
• Climate
• Water usage
• Water quality
• Adaptation
• Drought tolerance
• Salinity tolerance
• Pest & disease susceptibility
• Fertility requirements
• Color
• Shade tolerance
• Seedhead production
• Cost to plant (seed vs. sprigs)
• Patented rights
• Cost to maintain
Wetlands
Wetlands provide critical habitats for plants, fish, and wildlife. They also provide protection from flooding and improve water quality, while providing scenic beauty and recreation. Texas has lost more than half of this habitat in the past 200 years with areas being drained, filled, or used as dumping grounds. Wetlands can be difficult to recognize as they may only have water in them part of the time, but there are millions of acres of wetlands, of varying types, across the state.
When incorporated into a golf course design, wetlands should be maintained as preserves and separated from highly managed turfgrass areas with native vegetation or structural buffers. Constructed or disturbed wetlands may require a permit to be an integral part of the stormwater management system. Boundaries for wetlands are field located by qualified specialists who take soil borings and review the plants to make the determination. Proposed work adjacent to streams and rivers is also highly regulated. A professional consultant should be used for the design of the project and to ensure correct permitting.
Additional information on wetlands in Texas:
https://tpwd.texas.gov/publications/pwdpubs/media/pwd_bk_k0700_0908.pdf
Texas Wetland Definition
An area (including a swamp, marsh, bog, prairie pothole, or similar area) having a predominance of hydric soils that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support and that under normal circumstances supports the growth and regeneration of hydrophytic vegetation.
Source: Texas Water Code, Sec. 11.502: https://texas.public.law/statutes/tex._water_code_section_11.502
Floodplains
Around 12 percent of Texas’ state land area is mapped floodplain and there are flood-prone areas identified in most counties, towns, and cities across the state. Regulations have been enacted to reduce the potential for downstream or coastal flooding, to protect people and property, and to reduce future flood losses.
A golf course can be a compatible use of a floodplain zone, dependent on the frequency and severity of flooding. When persistent floods result in course closures, turfgrass loss, and significant sediment removal and bunker repair then use of the floodplain for golf may not be sustainable without improvements. Where elevating features is proposed to make them less susceptible to floods, the volume of fill installed must be balanced by lowering an equal volume of nearby ground at the same elevation to compensate for the loss in flood zone volume.
Additional information on floodplain management in Texas:
https://www.twdb.texas.gov/flood/resources/doc/Texas_Quick_Guide.pdf
Water Access and Management
Prudent water management considerations with golf course design and construction can help balance aesthetic and playability requirements with water conservation. Surface water in Texas is owned by the state; permitting must be submitted to the TCEQ for use of Texas water and annual usage reporting is required by March 1 each year. When the right to use state water is lawfully acquired, it may be taken or diverted from its natural channel. Requests must be formally made to designated Watermasters of the Water Division.
Reference the Irrigation, Surface Water Management, and Water Quality Monitoring and Management sections for additional BMPs
Greens, Fairways, Tees, and Bunkers
Certified turfgrass cultivars for all areas of the golf course should be selected based on site evaluations and climate conditions. Work with the architect to determine total greens size. Green size should be designed to allow for enough hole locations and space for traffic, while remaining sustainable using available resources. Install yardage reference points for consistency when selecting hole locations. Sand base for the greens and future topdressing sand should be from the same sand source. Select an appropriate root-zone material that meets USGA established material protocols.
Select locations for greens and fairways which have adequate sunlight to meet plant-specific needs and sufficient drainage. Greens should be irrigated separately from surrounding turfgrass. Consider landing areas when working with the architect to determine fairway size for each hole; also define play and non-play maintenance boundaries. For ingress-egress of the holes, include multiple spots of entry to get on fairway and ensure there is plenty of space for wear.
For tees and approaches, select a size large enough to accommodate traffic and divot recovery. Par-three tees typically need more square footage than par-four and par-five tees. Consider 250 square feet of teeing ground per 1,000 rounds of golf on par-three tees and 150 square feet per 1,000 rounds on par-four and par-five tees and fives. Understand the long-term objective of play levels to help determine the projected space requirements.
Bunker placement should be considered in relation to circulation patterns at greens so as not to concentrate turfgrass wear, while keeping with golf course design considerations. All bunkers require suitable entry and exit points. The size, number, and style of bunkers including angle of repose for selecting the proper sand should be considered during design as these factors relate to resources available for daily maintenance. Select the proper color, size, and shape of bunker sand that meets the site requirements, course maintenance level, budgetary considerations, and sustainability goals. Determine what type of drainage the bunkers will contain. The option of bunker reduction and incorporating additional native areas can save resources and water if these are deemed priorities for the site.
Bunker construction includes preparation, creating slopes and shapes, deciding whether to use sod or sprigs or a combination, and calculating cost to maintain, including what long-term maintenance will be required.
Reference the Cultural Practices section for additional BMPs.
More information from the USGA may be found here:
https://www.usga.org/course-care/digitalcollections/creating-usga-putting-green.html
Landscape & Garden Areas
Landscape (non-play) areas are an essential part of the overall course design, providing aesthetics, wildlife habitat, noise abatement, and natural cooling. An ecological landscape design approach addresses environmentally safe and energy-saving practices; and is economically important. A fundamental principle for environmentally-sound management of landscapes is planning for the right plant species, adapted for the particular location, incorporating native Texas species to help with water and energy conservation.
Reference the Landscape and Pollinator Protection and Wildlife Habitat sections for additional BMPs.
Construction
Guide contractors to ensure optimal safety and environmental preservation. Ensuring planning and specifications are thoughtfully developed can support overcoming unforeseen challenges and reduce the number of changes required during construction, minimizing costs. Contractors should be well-qualified with significant golf course renovation or construction experience and familiar with environmentally responsible construction methods.
Before any construction begins developing construction plans that clearly communicate scope of work to all parties involved. Construction Plans are typically created by the golf architect, engineer, and irrigation designer. All critical data from the environmental resource inventory as well as key notes regarding construction processes should be included in the construction documents, along with permitting conditions. Sediment and erosion control or stormwater management plans that were established in design should also be included in this documentation.
Conduct a pre-construction conference with relevant stakeholders. This meeting should define lines of communication, review the scope of work and schedule, review methods for reducing environmental impacts and for the allow contractor(s) to become familiar with any permit requirements. Any resource areas impacted by the project should be clearly marked out prior to the meeting, and the meeting should include a field review of these areas and discussion of permit conditions impacting construction in, or adjacent to, those areas. The golf course architect, engineer, irrigation designer and other key consultants should remain involved through the construction phase to ensure plans and specifications are being followed and permit conditions being met.
Schedule construction to maximize turfgrass establishment and site drainage, environmental conservation, and resource management. During construction the site should be kept as stable as possible to reduce erosion. With large projects this may require completing and stabilizing a portion of the site prior to starting on a new area, to limit the amount of disturbed area at any one time. Smaller projects, however, may better reduce impact with a narrow construction window as opposed to phasing. The emphasis during construction must be on performing the work with quality and care to minimize the potential for future problems.
To monitor and manage environmental impacts before, during and after construction establish ground water testing protocols and coastal water sites before commencing work. Where a site has varied elevations include testing sites above and throughout the gradient of the property to ensure impacts outside and onsite can be mitigated and properly recorded. Determine testing protocols ahead of time, with testing intervals determined for each site by sensitivities toward surrounding features, ground water flows, proximity to drinking wells, coastal impacts, and other related factors.
The contractor, owner’s representative, or a hired consultant should be responsible for monitoring and reporting on the construction process, including permit reporting. The level of diligence invested in monitoring can significantly influence the environmental and financial sustainability and viability of the project.
Best Management Practices
Use only qualified contractors who are experienced in the special requirements of golf course construction, such as a member of the Golf Course Builders Association of America (GCBAA), or one with significant local golf course construction experience.
Hold a pre-construction meeting with all relevant stakeholders.
Maintain a construction progress report throughout the project to monitor progress and issues. Ensure this report is communicated to the proper permitting agencies.
Develop a working knowledge of erosion and sediment control management. Texas has specifications including types of acceptable structures, materials, and design features.
Incorporate a stormwater “treatment train” approach; a stormwater pollution prevention plan (SWPPP) may be required for construction activities.
Schedule construction and turfgrass establishment to allow for the most efficient progress of the work, while optimizing environmental conservation and resource management.
Use environmentally sound construction techniques and soil stabilization techniques which minimize erosion and maximize sediment containment. Consider limiting the area of disturbance at one time. Finish and stabilize one area before starting another area.
Schedule construction to maximize turfgrass establishment and site drainage.
Temporary construction components and siltation barriers should be built in a way that minimizes environmental impacts. They should be reviewed before and after any rain event and repairs made where damage has occurred.
Develop and implement strategies to effectively manage sediment, minimize topsoil loss, protect water resources, and reduce environmental disruption and impact on wildlife and plant diversity.
Integrate hydro-mulching, erosion blankets or straw mulch into the seeding process to enhance soil stabilization. Avoid using hay as mulch which may introduce unwanted weed seeds that may become a future problem.
Check and repair erosion control barriers after every rain event.
Reference for GCBAA contractors:
Stormwater Management
Stormwater runoff occurs when rain or snowmelt flows over surfaces like driveways, sidewalks and streets, which prevents it from naturally soaking into the ground. Stormwater is a key force behind nonpoint source pollution and care must be taken to ensure that a golf course doesn’t contribute to this pollution, especially during construction.
Good drainage is the primary tenet of good golf design and projects should maintain or even reduce the volume of stormwater leaving a site. Techniques that manage and conserve water should be adopted into the design. Golf courses can help filter stormwater naturally to remove waterborne pollutants through planned “treatment trains” (i.e., vegetated swales, depressed landscape islands, and constructed wetlands). Through a treatment train, water is conveyed from one treatment to another by conveyances that themselves contribute to the treatment. This is an important consideration during design and construction to protect water quality.
A stormwater pollution prevention plan may be required for projects. Sediment control requirements may include the mapping of slopes greater than 15 percent or the determination of locations of highly erodible soils. Methods used to reduce sediment runoff may include the establishment of vegetative buffer strips, construction of interceptor swales that empty into detention basins, use of riprap to slow runoff and settle out sediment, and the installation of erosion control barriers. Adhering to planning principles should result in development that better fits existing site conditions and reduces
For Texas stormwater permitting requirements reference:
Stormwater management methods
Infiltration chambers: allow water to better enter the ground and recharge aquifers.
Retention basins: slow water flow off the property during heavy rain events while trapping sediments.
Swales with check dams: slow runoff.
Erosion control barriers and using mulch on seeded areas: assist with germination without soil erosion.
Planting native aquatic species within the stormwater treatment system: aids in nutrient uptake.
Best Management Practices
A “treatment train” is the best approach to stormwater management. Through this method water is conveyed from one treatment to another with conveyances that themselves contribute to the treatment.
Eliminate or minimize as much directly connected impervious area as possible.
Use vegetated swales to slow and infiltrate water and trap pollutants in the soil, where they can be naturally destroyed by soil organisms.
Use depressed landscape islands in parking lots to catch, filter, and infiltrate water. When hard rains occur, an elevated stormwater drain inlet allows the island to hold the treatment volume and settle out sediments, while allowing the overflow to drain away.
Wherever possible use absorbent pavements, such as brick or concrete pavers separated by sand and planted with grass. Special high-permeability concrete is available for cart paths or parking lots.
Disconnect runoff from gutters and roof drains from impervious areas, so that it flows onto permeable areas that allow the water to infiltrate near the point of generation.
Reference Surface Water Management and Water Quality Monitoring and Management for additional BMPs.
Erosion & Sediment Control
Sediment is defined as loose particles of sand, silt, and clay carried and deposited by wind or water. It most often occurs when heavy rain or irrigation flows over an area of exposed soil causing particles to be picked up by the moving water and deposited off site.
Erosion and sediment control are critical for construction. Sediment and eroded soil can be transported by wind to surface waters and degrade water quality by increasing turbidity. The turbid waters can harm aquatic plants and impair the habitat for fish, shellfish, and reptiles. The sediment may settle out, thereby reducing the volume of the waterbody and further impacting aquatic life. Another risk is the potential for soil, carried by wind and water erosion, to transport contaminants which can dislodge upon entering waterbodies. Work with the contractor to ensure erosion and sediment control management and that proper steps are taken, adhering to state requirements.
Drainage
Sufficient drainage systems are necessary to establish and maintain healthy turfgrass. Drainage should address runoff containment, buffer zones, and filtration techniques in the design and construction process to ensure acceptable water quality. Drainage systems should be properly installed, repaired, and maintained. Turfgrass relies on adequate drainage to remain healthy and disease free. Damaged, improperly installed, or poorly maintained drainage systems negatively impact play and increase risks to water quality.
Best Management Practices
When designing and constructing drainage systems consider engineering details such as subsoil preparation, slopes, backfilling, and placement of drainage gravel.
Internal golf course drains should not drain directly into an open body of water or protected wetland. They should discharge through pretreatment zones (such as grass swales or retention basins) and/or vegetative buffers to help remove nutrients and sediments.
The drainage system should be routinely inspected to ensure proper function.
Post development flow rates should be equal to or less than predevelopment conditions. Where extensive clearing occurs or impervious surface is added, this will require the installation of water retention components that slow the release of water from the site.
Examples of Erosion and Sediment Control Strategies
• Hydro-seeding, hydro-mulching, and sodding offer soil stabilization and assist in water retention
• Establishment of vegetative buffer strips
• Construction of swales that empty into detention basins
• Use of riprap to slow runoff and settle out sediment
• Installation of erosion control barriers
• Consider limiting the area of disturbance at one time
• Check and repair erosion control barriers after every rain event
• Use of straw, hay bales or pine straw can greatly reduce erosion potential
• For ingress-egress of the hole, if carts are allowed, make sure there is plenty of space for wear
Grow-In
Soil preparation and turfgrass establishment are critical elements in the golf course development process. This process must be carefully planned to minimize environmental risk. Special management areas may require a different approach and should be determined.
Most projects use a combination of seed and newly imported sod. The selection of the most appropriate grass, identifying drought and disease resistant cultivars, and determining starter fertilizer is critical. Consult with a regional USGA agronomist or a turfgrass consultant regarding best varieties of grass based on soil conditions, watering capabilities, and anticipated maintenance.
A “grow-in” fertility program should create calculated rates of pre-plant and establishment nutrient guidelines. Soil testing should be conducted prior to planting to best determine the amount and types of nutrients required. Potential long-term issues such as weed encroachment, disease, and drought susceptibility can be reduced with proper seedbed fertility. Nutrients should be applied, in either foliar or granular formulations, to the turfgrass surface. Slow-release nitrogen or light, frequent soluble-nitrogen sources should be used during grow-in. As feasible, deliver nutrients through the irrigation system (fertigation) in small quantities at regular intervals to reduce potential for runoff. Erosion barriers should remain in place through the soil preparation and grassing phase until full establishment of the turfgrass.
During the establishment period, mow as soon as the sod has knitted-down, when sprigs have rooted at the second to third internode, and seedlings have reached a height of one-third greater than intended height-of-cut. Continue with frequent mowing at roughly twice the final height of cut. This will hasten establishment. Create a timeline when areas are planted to give consistent time for establishment.
Heights of cut will be determined by the timeline as turfgrass becomes established and will be managed depending on area. Light verticutting and topdressing will improve playing surface and assist when reducing height-of-cut in each area. Reducing the height-of-cut often reduces weed establishment. Consider spot application of herbicides versus broadcast applications.
Best Management Practices
Soil testing should be conducted prior to planting.
Prepare area properly and clear of pests (weeds, pathogens, etc.)
Compacted soil should be loosened prior to planting, with soil loose enough to allow for good penetration of seed.
Sprigs should be “knifed-in” and rolled to hasten root establishment
Erosion and sediment control devices should be in place and properly maintained.
Spread mulch to slow runoff over the finely graded and smoothed ground surface.
Irrigation should be applied lightly and frequently to newly seeded areas, with the goal of keeping the soil damp, without runoff. Irrigation will become less frequent and heavier as the grass grows and thickens.
Top-dress sod to fill in the gaps between sod pieces to speed up establishment.
Use appropriate seeding methods for the golf course’s conditions.
Pre-plant fertilization should only be applied to bare soil immediately prior to seeding to reduce the chance of nutrient movement should a rain event occur. When using sod, nutrient applications should be delayed until sod has sufficiently rooted.
Slow-release nitrogen or light, frequent soluble-nitrogen sources should be used during grow-in.
Nutrients should be applied, in either foliar or granular formulations, to the turfgrass surface. Incorporating nutrients into the root zone increases environmental risk and does not result in more rapid establishment.
Reduce phosphorus applications when possible and only apply based on soil-tests.
Maintain unfertilized buffer strips between fertilized turfgrass and waterbodies.
Use vegetated containment areas for drain discharges.
Mow as soon as the sod has rooted, or when seedlings have reached a height of one-third greater than intended height-of-cut.
Remove erosion barriers only after the turfgrass is fully established in the area being protected.
Reference Maintenance Operations and Energy for BMPs and detail regarding maintenance facility design, construction, and operations.
Reference Pollinator Protection, Wildlife Habitat, Landscape for additional detail regarding wildlife and landscape considerations.
Reference Irrigation BMPs for additional information regarding irrigation systems.
Reference Surface Water Management and Water Quality Monitoring and Management for additional information about surface water management and protecting water quality.
