08 - INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
IPM Approach
IPM aims to reduce conventional pesticide use, when feasible, using an integration of multiple tactics including preventive, cultural or mechanical, biological, genetic, and chemical controls. It also helps to improve pesticide efficacy by encouraging appropriate timing and application methods. For golf course superintendents a strong understanding of IPM is crucial to ensuring the most safe, effective, and efficient approach to pest management is followed.
An IPM approach requires understanding the life cycle of pests – insects, weeds, diseases, etc. – and how they interact with the environment. This information, combined with active scouting and monitoring, helps to prevent and control pests when they pose a problem.
Correct use of IPM includes:
Properly identifying pests.
Choosing pest-resistant species and/or varieties of turfgrasses and other plants.
Enhancing the habitat for natural pest predators.
Scouting to determine pest populations and determining acceptable thresholds.
Utilizing alternatives methods to chemical pesticides (such as preventive, cultural, mechanical, or biological controls) whenever possible.
Minimizing impacts of chemical controls on the environment and reducing the potential for development of pesticide resistance.
As the IPM pyramid demonstrates, the aim is to make the greatest impact through prevention and other passive interventions, with biological and chemical interventions kept to the minimum level required for effective pest management. This helps reduce risk of pesticide exposure to people, animals, and the environment. It also helps with managing expenses and conserving energy
5 Key Steps for IPM
1. Scouting, Identification, Monitoring
2. Setting “Action Level” or Thresholds
3. Making Decisions - control method(s)/timing
4. Evaluation
5. Education
Best Management Practices
Always adhere to local, state, and federal regulations for pesticide application and biological controls; this includes reading and following the label for any product used - the label is the law. Proper records of pesticide applications should be kept according to local, state, or federal requirements.
Establish a written IPM plan. Monitor, observe, and document turfgrass conditions regularly (daily, weekly, or monthly, depending on the pest), scouting which pests are present, how damaging they are, determining pest thresholds, and necessary control strategies.
Collect soil samples annually to assess soil nutrient availability and pH; maintaining an optimal soil pH and appropriate fertilization practices help prevent diseases and promote plant health to reduce potential for insect and weed invasion.
Identify key pests and understand their lifecycle. This helps to know which life stage to target (for an insect pest, whether it is an egg, larva/nymph, pupa, or adult).
Decide which pest management practice (mechanical, chemical, biological) is appropriate and carry out corrective actions. Direct control where the pest lives or feeds.
Use preventive chemical applications only when professional judgment indicates that properly-timed preventive applications are likely to control the target pest effectively while minimizing economic and environmental costs.
When chemical pesticide applications are necessary, they should be carefully chosen for effective and site-specific pest control with minimal environmental impact.
Rotate pesticide modes of action to reduce resistance in pests; always follow label instructions with respect to appropriate rates and timing.
Regularly review the IPM approach to determine whether corrective actions have reduced or prevented pest populations; evaluate if they were economical and minimized risks. Record and use this information when making similar decisions in the future.
Maintain a supply of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) for use when handling pesticides or working on pesticide application equipment.
IPM Plan & Monitoring
A written IPM plan is critical to ensuring guidance is clear and that team members have an aligned understanding. All elements of the IPM pyramid should be included in this plan, which must also establish responsibilities, pest action thresholds, a system of communication, and pesticide-use hierarchy. Decisions to implement pest control actions should be based on a full understanding of key factors such as site characteristics, environmental conditions, and current or historic detection of the pest and/or damage occurrence and not on a scheduled, preventive pesticide-based treatment regimen. If preventive chemical control is used, it should be well-timed, informed, and should be developed with a comprehensive understanding of these key factors so as not to over-apply pesticides unnecessarily. A well-timed, informed chemical control can be effective in reducing significant aesthetic or economic loss. Many preventive applications will be most effective when the lifecycle of the pest is well-understood and environmental conditions (e.g., temperatures, precipitation) that may promote pest infestation are closely monitored. Very often, basic agronomic steps (altering fertilizer use or changing watering habits, etc.) can prevent further pest outbreaks without the use of pesticide-based treatment regimes.
Plans, scouting and monitoring should all be recorded, together with records of pesticide use. This will aid in decision-making in the future by providing information about successes and challenges in pest management. In Texas all applications of Restricted Use and State-Limited-Use Pesticides should be recorded, and records maintained for a minimum of two years. If a TDA Pesticide License is maintained, then ALL pesticide applications must be recorded, regardless of classification. In 54 Texas counties there are “Regulated Herbicides”, which are State-Limited-Use pesticides requiring additional use restrictions, TDA notification and approval.
Additional record-keeping information:
https://www.texasagriculture.gov/Portals/0/Publications/PEST/pes_rkbroch.pdf
Prescribed Burning
As part of an IPM program to control weeds and growth in native areas, prescribed burning may be employed. Texas regulations prohibit outdoor burning, exceptions for prescribed burns may be provided.
Reference Texas Administrative Code:
https://statutes.capitol.texas.gov/Docs/AG/htm/AG.76.htm#76.114
Pest Thresholds
In order to help alleviate concerns over potential aesthetic damage to the appearance of turfgrass or ornamental plants, it is important to educate golfers and maintenance personnel on IPM programs. Effective communications and education can raise tolerance of minor aesthetic damage without compromising plant health, play, and aesthetics. Use of pest thresholds can help guide application decisions and associated education activities, while minimizing economic and environmental costs.
Determining Pest Thresholds
A pest threshold is determined by the number of pests or the amount of pest damage that can be sustained before turfgrass quality is reduced to an unacceptable level. Thresholds vary by site, use of the turfgrass area, the specific pest being scouted, expectations of golfers, and budget constraints of the course.
Source: Leslie, A. 1994. Handbook of Integrated Pest Management for Turf and Ornamentals. Lewis Publishers, CRC Press, Inc.
Scouting & Monitoring
Golf course superintendents should include scouting activities in the IPM written plan. Scouting involves inspecting all areas of the course to identify populations and pest damage. Effectively scouting provides information to help determine acceptable thresholds and what control strategies are necessary. Methods include visual inspection, soil sampling, soap flushes, and insect trapping. Scouting results should be recorded to develop a historical record and allow for identification of patterns in pest activity together with IPM successes and failures. This information should be used when making similar future decisions.
Monitor, observe, and document the presence and development of pests regularly - anything from daily to monthly depending on the pests. Problem areas might include the edges of fairways, shady sites, or poorly-drained areas. Signs of the pest may include appearance and variance in size, shape, and color of spots, patches, rings, or circles; areas of thin turfgrass; mushrooms; animal damage; insect frass or webbing. Symptoms of the pest may include leaf spots, leaf blight, wilt, stunt, yellowing, root discoloration, rot, chlorosis, dieback, growth reduction, defoliation, mounds, or tunnels. Use Growing Degree Day (GDDs) calculations for assistance in monitoring for pest presence.
Growing Degree Days
Growing degree days are heat units used to estimate the development of plants and pests during the growing season. This method is more reliable at predicting insect development than calendar days.
Temperature averaging
GDD = [(Maximum Daily Temperature + Minimum Daily Temperature) / 2] - Base Temperature
Negative values are recorded as zero.
Additional Resources:
Best Management Practices
Note how different weather conditions affect outbreaks throughout the year. Record observations, keeping a record of the time of day, month, year, weather, and flowering stages of nearby plants.
Map pest outbreak locations (including disease patch size, number of insects per unit area, and percent of area affected) to identify patterns and susceptible areas for future applications.
Document pest management objectives, pest monitoring methods, and data collected with photos when possible; use GDDs for assistance in monitoring.
Train personnel to determine the pest’s lifecycle and know which life stage to target.
Personnel should be trained to document, identify, and record key pest activities on key plants.
Train personnel to identify which corrective actions reduced or prevented pest populations; understanding what actions are most economical, while minimizing risks.
Pest Groups
Insects
Insects can be destructive to turfgrass and disruptive to play. It is important to correctly identify the responsible insect pest and pest lifecycle to determine the best course of management. This often involves sending samples to diagnostic clinics. Entomologists are available at https://entomology.tamu.edu/ insectquestions/ and the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension offices for assistance with insect pest identification https://citybugs.tamu.edu/idhelp/. Turfgrass managers have multiple tactics and tools that can be used to control turfgrass insect pests, including cultural and chemical practices. Monitoring GDD accumulation can help determine when specific insect pests are likely to be present in order to determine best control strategy. Several available tools and resources may be found at:
Common Insect Pests in Texas
White Grubs
Chinch Bugs
Fire Ants
Bermudagrass and Zoysiagrass Mites
Rhodesgrass Mealybugs
Scale Insects
Fall Armyworms
Cutworms
Sod Webworms
Hunting Billbugs
Mole Crickets
References for Texas insect pests:
https://aggieturf.tamu.edu/turfgrass-insects/
https://landscapeipm.tamu.edu/ipm-for-turfgrass/pests-turfgrass/
https://www.uaex.edu/farm-ranch/pest-management/docs/training-manuals/AG1159.pdf
Best Management Practices
Ensure proper cultural practices to reduce turfgrass stress are used.
Correct any conditions that produce stressful environments for turfgrass. (e.g., improve airflow and drainage, reduce or eliminate shade, etc.)
Insecticide use may be integrated into an overall management strategy for a golf course. The appropriate (most effective) preventive insecticide can be applied to susceptible turfgrasses when unacceptable levels of insect damages are likely to occur. The use of preventive insecticides can also reduce the need of post-emergent applications that require higher use rates.
Record and map insect outbreaks. Identify trends to help guide future treatments and focus on changing conditions within susceptible areas to reduce insect outbreaks.
Information on common Texas insect pests:
https://takecareoftexas.org/sites/default/files/publications/gi-405.pdf
Diseases
With the right conditions and plant availability, plant pathogens can disrupt play by damaging and destroying turfgrass. Sound cultural practices are important for maintaining healthy turfgrass to prevent disease outbreaks. There are three components to consider with disease outbreaks: the host, pathogen, and environment – referred to as the “disease triangle”. Various conditions including excess soil moisture or mowing when turfgrass is wet can impact fungal disease outbreaks. Correctly identify the disease pathogen; this often involves sending samples to diagnostic clinics. Contact the Texas Plant Disease Diagnostic Laboratory at Texas A&M University for diagnosis: https://plantclinic.tamu.edu/
Fungicide use should be integrated into an overall management strategy for a golf course. The appropriate (most effective) preventive fungicide can be applied to susceptible turfgrasses when unacceptable levels of disease are likely to occur based on site history and environmental conditions.
Multiple tactics and tools may be used to reduce turfgrass disease on the golf course. Organic layer and thatch management, fertility programs, water management, mowing height selection, and equipment maintenance (i.e., sharp blades and sterilizing equipment where disease is present) are some of the practices that can support reductions in turfgrass disease occurrence and impact. Healthy, well-managed turfgrass has better recuperative potential, which helps prevent against disease.
Reference the Texas Plant Disease Handbook for common plant diseases and associated host grasses in the state:
https://plantdiseasehandbook.tamu.edu/landscaping/lawn-turf/
Nematodes
Plant-parasitic nematodes are microscopic roundworms which are difficult to control. They have a particularly adverse effect on susceptible turfgrasses by weakening the root system. This causes turfgrass to be less efficient in uptake of both water and nutrients, making it more susceptible to environmental stresses. Weakened turf is also more prone to pest infestation, especially troublesome weeds that necessitate herbicide applications.
Over time, turfgrass in the affected areas thins out and, with severe infestations, may die. The roots of turfgrasses under nematode attack may be very short, with few, if any, root hairs, or they may appear dark and rotten. Turfgrasses usually begin showing signs of nematode injury as they experience additional stresses, including drought, high temperatures, low temperatures, and wear. These can be especially problematic in coarse, sandy soils meaning that greens/tee boxes may need to be closely monitored.
Contact the Texas Plant Disease Diagnostic Laboratory at Texas A&M University for nematode detection: https://plantclinic.tamu.edu/forms/d827/
Best Management Practices
If nematode activity is suspected, it is recommended to test a combination of soil and turfgrass roots to understand the extent of the problem.
The application of a nematicide on golf course turfgrass should always be based on assay results.
Divert traffic away from areas that are stressed by insects, nematodes, diseases, or weeds.
Increase mowing height to reduce plant stress associated with nematodes, root-feeding insects, disease outbreaks, or peak weed-seed germination.
Additional information on nematodes in Texas:
https://aggieturf.tamu.edu/wp-content/uploads/E-294-Nematode.pdf
Weeds
Weed infestations can disrupt turfgrass by negatively impacting plant health and the playing surface. Weeds can be spread via seeds – often carried on footwear or blown in from nearby areas. They can also be spread vegetatively through tubers, corms, rhizomes, stolons, or bulbs. Weeds compete with turfgrass for space, water, light, and nutrients. In addition to the direct damage caused by weeds, they also act as hosts for disease, nematodes, and insects and some weeds can cause allergic reactions and skin irritants.
Best Management Practices
Select appropriate turfgrass species and cultivars adapted to prevalent environmental conditions.
Use a proper turfgrass and nutrient management in combination with cultural practices.
Properly identify weeds and understand their lifecycles.
Select and use appropriate herbicides, if necessary, in line with IPM controls.
Adopt or maintain cultural practices that protect turfgrass from environmental stresses such as shade, drought, and extreme temperatures.
Manage turfgrass through use of fertilizers and chemicals, proper mowing height and frequency, proper soil aeration, and regulated traffic.
Use weed-free materials for topdressing and establishment.
Additional reference for Texas turfgrass weeds:
Vertebrate Pests & Nuisance Wildlife
Vertebrate pest problems can often be solved by applying preventive controls such as sanitation, exclusion, and habitat modification. This may include addressing a habitat or an insect pest food source (i.e., armadillos or skunks looking for white grubs).
Examples of Texas Vertebrate Pests
Jackrabbit
Rodents
Ground squirrel
Armadillo
Skunk
Coyote
Feral hog
Alligator
Snakes
Vole
Best Management Practices
Understand and follow federal, TPWD, and local permit requirements and regulations.
Contact the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service – Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services and TPWD with questions or for assistance on proper removal of species protected by federal or Texas state law before using control measures or relocating to another area.
Observe migratory bird protection laws.
Recognize the damage problem (i.e., burrowing, mounds, rooting, reduction in ground cover, erosion, girdled limbs, traces, etc.) and identify the species responsible.
Understand the biology of the species relative to the problem; note time of year or seasons for population changes; damage may be more severe during population peaks.
Determine management strategies and alternatives (habitat manipulation, trapping, fencing, population control, guard animals, etc.)
Inform and educate staff and members on precautions to take with urban wildlife (i.e., coyotes, alligators)
https://tpwd.texas.gov/huntwild/wild/nuisance/coyote/
https://tpwd.texas.gov/huntwild/wild/species/alligator/safety/index.phtml
Consult with a specialist authorized by the TPWD with an applicable nuisance control permit.
For additional information or assistance, contact the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service – Animal Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services per Chapter 825, Texas Health and Safety Code:
https://agrilife.org/txwildlifeservices/
https://agrilife.org/txwildlifeservices/who-to-contact/
Additional information on vertebrate pests and nuisance wildlife:
Controls
Turfgrass Selection & Cultural Controls
Selecting a pest-resistant plant species is central to IPM and can decrease the level of pesticide use. A species grown outside of its zone of adaptation is more prone to pest problems. Species should be managed under conditions similar to the intended use (for example, not exceeding mowing height limitations that a grass was bred for or selected for) and turfgrasses must be scientifically selected for the eco-region of the golf course. Reference the National Turfgrass Evaluation Program for help with cultivar selection: https://ntep.org/ and Texas turfgrasses: https://aggieturf.tamu.edu/texas-turfgrasses/.
Best Management Practices
Select the most suitable turfgrass for existing conditions and one that adheres to design specifications. Select shade-adapted turfgrasses for areas receiving partial sun or shaded areas.
Minimize traffic in shaded areas to protect turfgrasses and trees from injury and soil compaction.
Use proper cultural, mechanical, or physical methods to prevent problems (e.g., prepare site, choose correct turfgrass for Texas region; select resistant cultivars), reduce pest habitat, practice good sanitation, pruning, and dethatching.
Pests can be minimized through proper irrigation, mowing (height, frequency, pattern), clipping management, topdressing, core aerification, and venting.
Varying mowing pattern encourages vertical growth to reduce grain, increases tolerance from wear, and minimizes soil compaction.
Reduce fertilizer applications and irrigation in shaded areas.
Reduce pest and disease pressures by correcting dead spots and air-circulation issues through pruning and irrigation scheduling.
Understand the ET of turfgrass on the course and use this to optimize irrigation.
Mow when grass is dry to avoid spread of turfgrass diseases; maintain sharp cutting edges to avoid stress; keep equipment clean and/or sterilize equipment when pest infestations are present; properly manage grass clippings.
Reference common diseases by turfgrass species:
https://plantdiseasehandbook.tamu.edu/landscaping/lawn-turf/sorted-by-name-of-grass-turf/
Effect of various cultural practices on turfgrass diseases.
Table adapted from A Practical Guide to Turfgrass Fungicides. Latin, 2011. American Pathological Society. St. Paul, MN.
Source: Connecticut Golf Industry Best Management Practices Guide, 2020
Beneficial Insects in Texas
• Ladybugs
• Dragonflies
• Green lacewing
• Ox beetle
Biological Controls
The biological component of IPM involves the release and/or conservation of natural predators, such as parasites and pathogens, and other beneficial organisms. This can involve utilizing natural pest enemies such as ladybugs and releasing these near pest infestations. It can also involve modification of the course to support natural predators and beneficial organisms.
Understand the lifecycles of beneficials. When feasible, avoid applying pesticides to roughs, driving ranges, or other low-use areas to provide a refuge for beneficial organisms. Targeted areas for biological controls should attract natural predators and protect them from pesticide applications. Plant insectary plants that provide pollen or nectar sources.
Minimizing impact to bees and beneficial arthropods is an important part of IPM. Consider pollinators before selecting and applying pesticides to prevent potential negative impacts.
Best Management Practices
Where possible, modify areas of the course to attract natural predators, provide habitat for them, and protect them from pesticide applications.
Install flowering plants that can provide parasitoids with nectar, or sucking insects (aphids, mealybugs, or soft scales) with a honeydew source.
Avoid applying pesticides to roughs, driving ranges, or other low-use areas to provide a refuge for beneficial organisms.
When using pesticides, minimize injury and damage by following label directions.
Avoid applying pesticides during bloom season when pollinators are active. If application is necessary, follow label information concerning the application of pesticides when plants may be in bloom.
If flowering weeds are prevalent, control them before applying insecticides.
Use the latest spray technologies (i.e., drift-reduction nozzles) to prevent off-site translocation.
Use granular formulations of pesticides that are known to be less hazardous to bees.
Reference Pollinator Protection & Wildlife Habitat for additional BMPs on protecting pollinators.
Conventional Pesticides
IPM involves both prevention — keeping the pest from becoming a problem — and suppression — reducing the pest numbers or damage to an acceptable level. Pests will always be present on a golf course; it is not possible to completely eliminate them. A control strategy should be implemented that reduces pest numbers to an acceptable level while minimizing harm to non-targeted organisms. Pesticides should be used only when the pest is causing or is expected to cause more damage than what can be reasonably and economically tolerated.
Key Factors for Pesticide Selection
Effectiveness
Method and frequency of application
Potential toxicity to non-target species
Cost
Site characteristics
Solubility
Persistence
Packaging
Pesticides should be evaluated on effectiveness against the pest, mode of action, life stage of the pest, personnel hazards, non-target effects, potential off-site movement, and cost. Always follow the directions on the label - these have been developed based on the chemistry, biological effects, and environmental fate of the pesticide. Note environmental hazards and groundwater advisories included on labels. Also note pesticide label “Use Restrictions” as to where a product may or may not be used – i.e., specific areas of the golf course, specific species and/or cultivars, specific soils, etc. Follow guidelines provided by the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee, Herbicide Resistance Action Committee, and Insecticide Resistance Action Committee.
Minimizing Pesticide Resistance
Pesticide resistance is a change in the sensitivity of a pest population to a pesticide, resulting in the failure of a correct application of the pesticide to control the pest. Pesticide mode of action (MOA) is the is the process of how pesticides control pests and site of action is the specific place where the pesticide works on a cellular level. Repeatedly relying on a single MOA selects for populations that are resistant to that specific MOA. Application of diverse IPM strategies for prevention and control, in combination with rotating or combining pesticide MOAs helps to prevent pesticide resistance.
Best Management Practices
Always read the pesticide label, follow the recommended rates for application, timing, and equipment recommendations.
Properly identify the pest which is present and its growth stage.
Apply pesticides only when necessary; follow determined thresholds; practice IPM preventive measures and control strategies including proper cultural practices, mechanical, or biological controls.
Check pesticide labels for the MOA and avoid using pesticides with the same MOA for a prolonged period of time.
Use multiple MOAs and rotate pesticides with different MOAs for target pests.
Understand the target site of action (SOA) which is a specific process that a pesticide disrupts (the location of inhibition); the more a SOA is relied upon, the greater the risk of resistance. Rotate SOA with different MOAs to reduce the risk of resistance.
Mix and apply pesticides carefully and per the label instructions.
Scout regularly to respond quickly to changes in pest populations and scout prior to application to determine correct timing when pests are most susceptible.
Application of pesticides to pest populations that are beyond the optimal timing (i.e., large weeds, late instar insect larvae or disease in the epidemic phase) can speed the development of resistance.
Monitor sites and results, clean equipment between sites.
Maintain detailed records to confirm application history and to help plan for pesticide resistance management.
Reference guidelines and tools provided by the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee, Herbicide Resistance Action Committee, Weed Society of America, and Insecticide Resistance Action Committee.
Additional information:
https://wssa.net/wssa/weed/resistance/
https://hracglobal.com/herbicide-resistance/overview
https://www.frac.info/fungicide-resistance-management/background
Pesticide Classification Hierarchy and Label
Pesticides contain active ingredients (the component in a commercial product that is primarily responsible for controlling the pest) that are identified on the product label. A numbering system assigns each pesticide to a mechanism of action (or SOA) group based on active ingredients. The EPA recommends that labels display the group number that identifies the mechanism of action for the active ingredient(s). In addition, pesticides include inert ingredients such as solvents, surfactants, and carriers. It is important to understand mode of action and mechanism of action compared to active ingredients to help develop strategies for pesticide resistance management. Both active and inert ingredients may be controlled or regulated by federal, state, and local laws.
The goal of a mechanism of action numbering classification system is to help provide a tool to aid in pesticide selection. Labels also include resistance management guidelines for assistance.
Additional information:
https://emergence.fbn.com/agronomy/how-to-read-pesticide-label
https://slideplayer.com/slide/14388695/
Best Management Practices
Train employees in proper pest identification and pesticide selection techniques. Always read the pesticide label, follow directions, and adhere to the use restrictions to determine whether a product is appropriate, how that product should be applied, and at what rates. The label is the law.
Choose the product most appropriate for the problem or pest; ensure the turfgrass species/cultivar and pest are both on the label, and that the product is labelled for this particular use scenario.
Use the rate specified by the pesticide product label. Do not mix more than the rate specified by the label, which should be only the quantity of pesticide needed; this also helps to avoid disposal problems, protects non-target organisms, and controls costs.
Make note of any environmental hazards and groundwater advisories included on the label.
Rotate pesticide and/or combine modes-of-action to reduce the likelihood of resistance.
Spot-treat pests whenever appropriate.
Refer to Pesticide Management and Pollinator Protection and Wildlife Habitat for additional BMPs.
Classification Hierarchy
Example of a Pesticide Label
The Environmental Protection Agency has identified alternatives to conventional pesticides:
Reduced Risk Pesticides
Low impact on human health
Lower toxicity to non-target organisms (birds, fish, plants)
Low potential for groundwater contamination
Low use rates
Low pest resistance potential
Compatibility with IPM practices
Biopesticides
Derived from natural materials (e.g.; animals, plants, bacteria, certain minerals)
Usually inherently less toxic than conventional
Generally affect only target pest & closely related organisms
Often effective in small quantities & decomposes quickly, resulting in lower exposures & pollution
Compatibility with IPM practices
For more information:
https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/conventional-reduced-risk-pesticide-program
https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/what-are-biopesticides
Reduced Risk Pesticides for Use on Golf Course Turfgrass
